题目内容
How the Smallpox War Was Won
The world's last known case of smallpox was reported in Somalia, the Horn of Africa, in October 1977. The victim was a young cook called Ali Maow Maalin. His case becomes a landmark in medical history, for smallpox is the first communicable disease ever to be eradicated.
The remarkable campaign to free the world of smallpox has been led by the World Health Organization. The Horn of Africa, embracing the Ogaden region of Ethiopia and Somalia, was one of the last few smallpox ridden areas of the world when the WHO—sponsored Smallpox Eradication Programme (SEP)got underway there in 1971.
Many of the 25 million inhabitants, mostly farmers and nomads living in a wilderness of desert, bush and mountains, already had smallpox. The problem of tracing the disease in such formidable country was exacerbated further by the continuous warfare in the area.
The program concentrated on an imaginative policy of "search and containment." Vaccination was used to reduce the widespread incidence of the disease, but the success of the campaign depended on the work of volunteers. These were men, paid by the day, who walked hundreds of miles in search of "rumours”—information about possible smallpox cases.
Often these rumours turned out to be cases of measles, chicken pox or syphilis but nothing could be left to chance. As the campaign progressed the disease was gradually brought under control. By September 1976 the SEP made its first report that no new cases had been reported. But that first optimism was short-lived. A three-year-old girl called Amina Salat, from a dusty village in the Ogaden in the south-cast of Ethiopia, had given smallpox to a young nomad visitor. Leaving the village the nomad had walked across the border into Somalia. Therc he infected 3,000 people, and among them had been the cook, Ali. It was a further 14 months before the elusive "target zero"—no further cases--was reached.
Even now, the search continues in "high risk" areas and in parts of the country un- checked for some time. The flow of romours has now diminished to a trickle--but each must still be checked by a qualified person.
Victory is in sight, but two years must pass since the last case before an International Commission can declare that the world is entirely free from smallpox.
Ali Maow Maalin's case is significant because he was the______.
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When these early migrants arrived in North America, they found the woods and plains dominated by three types of American mammoths. These elephants were distinguished from today's elephants mainly by their thick, shaggy coats and their huge, upward-curving tusks. They had arrived on the continent hundreds of thousands of years before their human followers. The wooly mammoth in the North, the Columbian mammoth in middle North America, and the imperial mammoth of the South, together with their distant cousins the mastodons, dominated the land. Here, as in the Old World, there is evidence that humans hunted these elephants, as shown by the numerous spear points found with mammoth remains.
Then, at the end of the Ice Age, when the last glaciers had retreated, there was a relatively sudden and widespread extinction of elephants. In the New World, both mammoths and mastodons disappeared. In the Old World, only Indian and African elephants survived.
Why did the huge, seemingly successful mammoths disappear？ Were humans connected with their extinction.* Perhaps, but at that time, although they were cunning hunters, humans were still widely scattered and not very numerous. It is difficult to see how they could have prevailed over the mammoth to such an extent.
Which of the following conclusions about mammoths does the passage support？
Why was he wanted in Argentine？
Identifying leadership traits, or the physical and psychological characteristics of leaders, was the first formal approach, and had a lot of intuitive appeal. It owed its origins to the turn of the century(about 1904)when trait studies began. At this time most American leaders came from certain wealthy families, the vast majority were white males, and there were some social norms about what leaders looked like (tall, square jaw, well groomed etc. ). The original assumption that "leaders are born not made" has been discredited, because there were too many exceptions to the traits to give them any credibility. Beginning after World War II, in sharp contrast to the trait approach, the behavioral approach looked at what a leader does, what behaviors leaders use that set them apart from others. This approach assumed that leadership could be learned. Virtually all of the studies focused on classifying behaviors according to whether they fell into a process or "people approach" (satisfying individual needs) , or a "task approach" (getting the job done). The basis for this classification was in the discovery in social psychology that every group needs someone to fill both these roles in the group for it to be effective. The earliest of these studies began in Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in the late 1940s. Many of the early trait and behavioral writers tried to make their ideas applicable to all leadership situations. The earliest situational approach to leadership was developed in 1958. This approach strived to identify characteristics of the situation that allowed one leader to be effective where another was not. The trend later developed toward the third approach, understanding the unique characteristics of a situation and what kind of leadership style. best matches with these.
Which of the following questions does the author answer in the first paragraph？
London is steeped in Dickensian history. Every place he visited, every person he met, would be drawn into his imagination and reappear in a novel. There really are such places as Hanging Sword Alley in Whitefriars Street, ECl (Where Jerry Cruncher lived in A Tale of Two Cities) and Bleeding Heart Yard off Greville Street, ECl (Where the Plornish family lived in Little Dorrit); riley are just the sort of places Dickens would have visited on his frequent nighttime walks.
He first came to London as a young boy, and lived at a number of addresses throughout his life, moving as his income and his issue (he had ten children)increased. Of these homes only one remains, at 48 Doughty Street, WC1, now the Dickens House Museum (Tel:405 2127, Mon-Sat 10:00 -17:00, admission ~ 1.50) , and as good a place as any to start your tour of Dickens's London.
The Dickens family lived here for only two years—1837 - 1839—but during this brief period, Charles Dickens first achieved great fame as a novelist, finishing Pickwick Papers, and working on Oliver Twist, Barnaby Rudge and Nicholas Nickleby. If you want a house full of atmosphere, you may be a little disappointed, for it is more a collection of Dickensiana than a recreation of a home. Don't let this deter you, however, for this is the place to see manuscripts, first editions, letters, original drawings, as well as furniture, pictures and artifacts from different periods of his life. Just one room, the Drawing Room, has been reconstructed to look as it would have done in 1839, but elsewhere in the house you can see the grandfather lock which belonged to Moses Pickwick and gave the name to Pickwick Papers, the writing table from Gad's Hill, Rochester, on which he wrote his last words of fiction, and the mahogany sideboard he bought in 1839.
It was in the back room on the first floor that Dickens's sister-in-law Mary Hogarth died when she was only 17. He loved Mary deeply, probably more than his wife, her sister. The tragedy haunted him for years, and is supposed to have inspired the famous death scene of Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop.
If you walk through Lincoln's Inn Fields, you will come across Portsmouth Street, and a building which, since Dickens's death, has claimed to be the Old Curiosity Shop itself. It is thought to date from 1567, and is the oldest shop in London, but it seems more likely that the real Curiosity Shop was off Leicester Square. Whatever file truth, file shop makes a pleasant change from the many modern buildings which line the street.
If you know Dickens's work well, you may like to make your own way around this area, or you may prefer to rely on the experts and join a guided walk.
"City Walks" organize a tour around a part of London which features strongly both in Dickens's early life and his books. This is Southwark, SEI, an area not normally renowned as tourist attraction, but one which is historically fascinating. When the Dickens family first arrived in London, John Dickens, Charles's father, was working in Whitehall. He was the model for Mr. Micawber in David Copperfield, so it is not surprising to learn that within a few months he was thrown into the Marshalsea Prison, off Borough High Street, for debt (Micawber was imprisoned in King's Bench Prison which stood on the corner of the Borough Road). The Marshalsea Prison has long gone, but you can stand by the high walls and recall the time that Dickens would go into prison for supper each evening, after a hard and humiliating day sticking labels on pots at the Blacking Warehouse at Hungerford Stairs (near Chafing Cross Station).
Off Borough High Street are several small 'alleys called Yards. These mark the sites of the old coaching inns where passengers would catch a stagecoach to destinations around the country. In one, White Hart Yard, stood the White Hart Inn, a tavern that Dickens knew well and in which he decided to intro
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