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Samuel Bard (1742–1821) is an American physician and ethicist, a founder of what is now the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Harvard University. He is the author of A Discourse upon the Duties of a Physician, based on Scottish moral science, which he learned as a medical student at the University of Edinburgh.
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Johann Peter Frank (1745–1821), a German physician and hygienist, wrote System einer vollständigen medicinischen Polizei (A System of Complete Medical Police), based on the concept that the physician's primary obligation is to the state or monarch, which influenced medical ethics in the Soviet Union (1917–1989).
Benjamin Rush (1746–1813) is a physician and American patriot who signed the Declaration of Independence for Pennsylvania and served as surgeon general of the Continental Army. Rush studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and brought John Gregory's medical ethics to North America in his Observations on the Duties of a Physician, and the Methods of Improving Medicine: Accommodated to the Present State of Society and Manners in the United States.
Thomas Percival (1740–1804), an English physician and ethicist, is the author of probably the first text titled "Medical Ethics" in the global history of medical ethics, Medical Ethics, based on Baconian scientific medicine, the moral science of Richard Price (1723–1791), and the moral theology of Dissenters and an influence on the 1847 Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical Association.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626), an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, and jurist, developed scientific method for clinical investigation and practice based on "experience" (the carefully observed and reported results of natural and controlled experiments, for example, effects of medication), a nascent form of evidence-based medicine, and an ethics of the offices (officiis) or role-related obligations of physicians.
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