题目内容
The Supreme Court's decision in 1954 led to changes which brought an end to the system of segregated public education in the southern state. However, problems in race relations continued to trouble the public schools, even though schools were legally desegregated throughout the country.
Black Americans were still mainly in the lowest income and occupational groups and frequently lived in slums in the nation's largest cities. The public schools in these areas were composed predominantly or entirely of black students and often shared the neighborhood problem of high crime rates and other forms of social disorder. The schools in the black slums were clearly unequal to those in the predominantly white, middleclass neighborhoods.
The problem of schools where racial separation results from the makeup of neighborhoods rather than from laws requiring segregation exists in all parts of the United States, not just in the South. Numerous efforts to solve this problem have not succeeded very well. The most controversial method used to deal with unequal neighborhood schools was the busing of school children from their home neighborhoods to schools in more distant neighborhoods in order to achieve a greater mixture of black and white children in all schools.
Black children from poor or slum neighborhoods were bused to school in predominantly white middleclass neighborhoods, and students living in the middle-class neighborhoods were bused into the poorer black neighborhood schools. A new question dealing with racial equality in education was brought to the Supreme Court in the late 1970s. The question dealt with the admission policies of professional schools such as medical and law schools, which arc attached to many of the nation's colleges and universities. Some of these schools have attempted to do more than treat all applicants equally. Many have tried in recent years to make up for past discrimination against blacks and other minorities by setting aside a certain number of places specifically for applicants from these groups, this practice came to be described as setting minority quotas, lowering somewhat the academic standards for admission for a limited number oF minority applicants.
From Paragraph 1, we can infer that Justice Helen advocated ______.
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Section B
Directions: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.
Over the past decade, American companies have tried hard to find ways to discourage senior managers from feathering their own nests at the expense of their shareholder. The three most popular reforms have been recruiting more outside directors in order to make boards more independent, linking bosses' pay to various performance measures, and giving bosses share options so that they have the same long-term interests as their shareholders.
These reforms have been widely adopted by America's larger companies, and surveys suggest that many more companies are thinking of following their, lead. But have they done any good？ Three papers presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management in Boston this week suggest not. As is usually the case with boardroom tinkering, the consequences have differed from those intended.
Start with those independent boards. On the face of it, dismissing the boss's friends from the board and replacing them with outsiders looks a perfect way to make senior managers more accountable. But that is not the conclusion of a study by Professor James Westphal. Instead, he found that bosses with a boardroom full of outsiders spend much of their time building alliances, doing personal favors and generally pleasing the outsiders.
All too often, these seductions succeed. Mr. Westphal found that, to a remarkable degree, "independent" boards pursue strategies that are likely to favor senior managers rather than shareholders. Such companies diversify their business, increase the pay of executives and weaken the link between pay and performances. To assess the impact of performance-related pay, Mr. Westphal asked the bosses of 103 companies with sales of over ＄1 billion what measurements were used to determine their pay. The measurements varied widely, ranging from sales to earnings per share. But these researchers uncovered a startling finding: executives "attend to measures that affect their own incomes and ignore or play down other factors that determine a company's overall success".
In Short, bosses are quick to turn every imaginable system of corporate government to their advantage, which is probably why they are the people who are put in charge of things. Here is a paradox for the management theorists: any boss who cannot beat a system designed to keep him under control is probably not worth having.
The purpose of the large companies in recruiting outsiders and putting them on the board of directors is to ______.
A．People can talk with others during the trip.B．It only takes 15 minutes to cross the
Section B
Directions: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. You should decide on the best choice.
There is a phenomena ill the present. The average number of authors on scientific papers is skyrocketing. What is the main reason for it？ That's partly because labs are bigger, problems are more complicated, and more different subspecialties are needed. But it's also because US government agencies like the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have started to promote "team science". As physics developed in the post-World War Ⅱ era, federal funds built expensive national facilities, and these served as surfaces on which collaborations could crystallize naturally.
Yet multiple authorship--however good it may be in other ways presents for journals and for the institutions in which these authors work. For the journals, long lists of authors are hard to deal with in themselves. But those long lists give rise to more serious questions when something goes wrong with the paper. If there is research misconduct, should tile liability be joint and several, accruing to all authors？ If not, then how should it be allocated among them？ If there is an honest mistake in one part of the work but not in others, how should an evaluator aim his or her review？
Various practical or impractical suggestions have emerged during the long-standing debate on this issue. One is that each author should provide, and the journal should then publish, an account of that author's particular contribution to the work. But a different view of the problem, and perhaps of the solution, comes as we get to university committee on appointments and promotions, which is where the authorship rubber really meets the road. Half a lifetime of involvement with this process has taught me how much authorship matters. I have watched committees attempting to decode sequences of names, agonize over whether a much cited paper was really the candidate's work or a coauthor's, and send back recommendations asking for more specificity about the division of responsibility.
Problems of this kind change the argument, supporting the case for asking authors to define their own roles. After all, if quality judgments about individuals are to be made on the basis of their personal contributions, then the judges better know what they did. But if questions arise about the validity of the work as a whole, whether as challenges to its conduct or as evaluations of its influence in the field, a team is a team, and the members should share the credit or the blame.
There is a tendency that scientific papers are ______.
听力原文： (29) Tile Golden Gate Bridge joins the beautiful city of San Francisco with its suburbs to the north. (26)Each day, about one hundred thousand cars cross the bridge, taking people to and from the city. More than half of them cross the bridge during the morning and evening rush hours. As a result, the trip is not pleasant.
Now, however, there is at least one group of happy commuters. These are the people who travel under the bridge instead of on it. They go to work by boat and enjoy it so much that most say they will never go by car again. (29)The boat they take is the large, quite, comfortable "Golden Gate". (27)Commuters can enjoy the sun on the boat. In the morning they can have breakfast in the coffee shop, and in the evening they can have a drink in the bar while they are looking at San Francisco's famous scene and the nearby hills.
The trip takes only thirty minutes and is not very expensive. And what's more, being on a boat seems to make people feel more friendly towards each other. Two commuters who met on the "Golden Gate" have already got married.
Because the boat has been so successful, there are plans to use other, still larger boats. There is also a plan for a high speed boat that will make the trip in only fifteen minutes. (28)Not everyone is happy about that. "A lot of people don't want to get the trip faster," said one commuter. "They feel that half an hour is just enough time to rest."
(33)
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