Principles in Japanese Organizations
During the 1970s and 1980s, American managers invested much time and money studying Japanese approaches to management because of the fine quality of Japanese products and the general productivity of their organizations. While the American and Japanese cultures differ significantly in many ways, it is still possible to examine Jap0nese management and discover several relevant principles.
Extensive studies of Japanese organizations have demonstrated that Japanese managers stress the following:
Bottom-up Initiative
Japanese managers believe that change and initiative within an organization should come from those closest to the problem. So they elicit(引起) change from below. Top-level Japanese managers see their task as creating an atmosphere in which subordinates are motivated to seek better solutions. The difference is that Western style. decision-making proceeds mostly from top management and often does not consult middle management or the worker while in Japan, ideas can be created at the lowest levels, travel upward through an organization and have an impact on the eventual decision. This is "bottom up".
Top Management as Motivator
Japanese managers do not view themselves as having all the answers. When a subordinate brings in a proposal, the manager neither accepts nor rejects it. Rather, he tactfully, politely asks questions, makes suggestions, and provides encouragement.
Middle Management as Impetus for and Shaper of Solutions
In the Japanese system, junior (middle) managers are initiators who perceive problems and formulate tentative (尝试的) solutions in coordination with others. They are not functional specialists who carry out their boss's directives. Because so much emphasis is placed on coordination and integration,' solutions to problems evolve more slowly, but they are known and understood by all those who have been a part of the solution generation process. Horizontal communication is stressed as essential to the coordination of problem-solving efforts.
Consensus(多数人的意见) as a Way of Making Decisions
The Japanese are less inclined to think in terms of absolutes, that is, the solution (which is right) versus the alternatives (which are wrong). Rather, they recognize a range of alternatives, several of which might work and all of which possess advantages and disadvantages. When a group makes a decision, all members become committed to the chosen solution. From a Japanese perspective, that commitment, and the ensuing dedication toward working to make the solution successful, is probably more important than the objective quality of the decision. The Japanese have an interesting concept of consensus. Those who consent to a decision are not necessarily endorsing(签署) it. Rather, consent means that each person is satisfied that his point of view has been fairly heard, and although he or she may not wholly agree that the decision is the best one, he or she is willing to go along with it and even support it.
Concern for Employees' Personal Well-being
Japanese managers have a kind of paternalistic (家长试作风的) attitude toward their employees. Traditionally, Japanese organizations have offered their workers housing, extensive recreational facilities, and lifetime employment. The Japanese believe that it is impossible to divorce a worker's personal and professional lives. Good managers express concern for workers as persons with homes and families as well as for the quality of the products the workers produce. Managers typically work alongside their subordinates, counsel them regarding their personal lives, and encourage much peer interaction.
Advantage or Disadvantage
It is interesting that principles that are considered, Joy many to be advantages of the Japanese system can also be viewed as problems, at least from an American perspec

A. Y
B. N
C. NG