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During 1932–1949, Imperial Japanese Army established biological warfare programs, such as Unit 731, that conducted unethical experiments using human subjects, comparable to the crimes against humanity of the Nazi doctors. However, no prosecution by Allied countries occurred after the end of World War II in the Pacific.
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From 1931 to 1982, the United States Public Health Service in Macon County, Georgia, conducted a study of the natural history of syphilis among African American men. The study's name is taken from the Tuskegee Institute, the hospital that collaborated in the study.
Richard C. Cabot (1868–1939) isan England physician and ethicist. His medical ethics emphasized cooperation among healthcare professionals caring for a patient, an ethics of cooperation that anticipated the now standard hospital practice of team care.
Samuel Bard (1742–1821) is an American physician and ethicist, a founder of what is now the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Harvard University. He is the author of A Discourse upon the Duties of a Physician, based on Scottish moral science, which he learned as a medical student at the University of Edinburgh.
Johann Peter Frank (1745–1821), a German physician and hygienist, wrote System einer vollständigen medicinischen Polizei (A System of Complete Medical Police), based on the concept that the physician's primary obligation is to the state or monarch, which influenced medical ethics in the Soviet Union (1917–1989).
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