题目内容
Humanity’s primal (原始的) efforts to systematize the concepts of size, shapes, and number are usually regarded as the earliest mathematics. However, the concept of number and the counting process developed so long (67) the time of recorded history (there is archaeological (68) that counting was employed by humans as far back as 50,000 years ago) that the (69) of this development is largely conjectural (好推测的). Imaging how it probably came (70) is not difficult. The argument that humans, (71) in prehistoric times, had some number sense, at least (72) the extent of recognizing the concepts of more and less when some objects were (73) to or taken away from a small group, seems fair, for studies have shown that some animal possesses such a (74) . With the (75) evolution of society, simple counting became necessary. A tribe had to know how many members it had and how many enemies, and shepherd needed to know (76) the flock of sheep was decreasing in size. Probably the earliest way of keeping a count was by some simple tally (计算, 记录) method, (77) the principle of one-to-one corre-spondence. In (78) a count of sheep, for example, one finger per sheep could be (79) . Counts could also be (80) by making scratches in the dirt or on a stone, by cutting notches in a piece of wood, or by tying knots in a string. (81) , perhaps later, an assortment of vocal (82) was developed as a word tally against the number of objects in, a small group. And (83) later, with the development of writing, a set of (84) was invented to stand for these numbers. Such an imagined development is (85) by reports of anthropologists in their studies of present-day societies that are (86) to be similar to those of early humans.
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Cable Television In the 1940s, there were four networks in the United States. Because of the frequencies allotted to television, the signals could only be received in a "line of sight" from the transmitting antenna. People living in remote areas couldn’t see the programs that were already becoming an important part of U. S. culture. In 1948, people living in remote valleys in Pennsylvania solved their reception problems by putting antennas on hills and running cables to their houses. These days, the same technology once used by remote villages and select cities allows viewers all over the country to access a wide variety of programs and channels that meet their individual needs and desires. By the early 1990s, cable television had reached nearly half the homes in the United States. Today, U. S. cable systems deliver hundreds of channels to some 60 million homes, while also providing a growing number of people with high-speed Internet access. Some cable systems even let you make telephone calls and receive new programming technologies! The earliest cable systems were, in effect, strategically placed antennas with very long cables connecting them to subscribers’ television sets. Because the signal from the antenna became Weaker as it traveled through the length of cable, cable providers had to insert amplifiers at regular intervals to boost the strength of the signal and make it acceptable for viewing. "In a cable system, the signal might have gone through 30 or 40 amplifiers before reaching your house, one every 1,000 feet or so," Wall says, "With each amplifier, you would get noise and distortion. Plus, if one of the amplifiers failed, you lost the picture. Cable got a reputation for not having the best quality picture and for not being reliable." In the late 1970s, cable television would find a solution to the amplifier problem. By then, they had also developed technology that allowed them to add more programming to cable service. In the early 1950s, cable systems began experimenting with ways to use microwave transmitting and receiving towers to capture the signals from distant stations. In some cases, this made television available to people who lived outside the range of standard broadcasts. In other cases, especially in the northeastern United States, it meant that cable customers might have access to several broadcast stations of the same network. For the first time, cable was used to enrich television viewing, not just make ordinary viewing possible. The addition of community antenna television stations and the spread of cable systems ultimately led manufacturers to add a switch to most new television sets. People could set their televisions to tune to channels, or they could set them for the plan used by most cable systems. In both tuning systems, each television station was given a 6-megahertz (MHz) slice of the radio spectrum. The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) had originally devoted parts of the very high frequency (VHF) spectrum to 12 television channels. The channels weren’t put into a single block of frequencies, but were instead broken into two groups to avoid interfering with existing services. Later, when the growing popularity of television necessitated additional channels, the FCC allocated frequencies in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) portion of the spectrum. They established channels 14 to 69 using a block of frequencies between 470 MHz and 812 MHz. Because they used cable instead of antennas, cable television systems didn’t have to worry about existing services. Engineers could use the mid-band, those frequencies passed over by broadcast TV due to other signals, for channels 14-22. Channels 1 through 6 are at lower frequencies and the rest are higher. The "CATV \ Antenna" switch tells the television’s tuner whether to tune around the mid-band or to tune straight through it. While we’re on the subject of tuning, it’s worth considering why CATV systems don’t use the same frequencies for stations broadcasting on channels 1 to 6 that those stations use to broadcast over the airwaves. Cable equipment is designed to shield the signals carded on the cable from outside interference, and televisions are designed to accept signals only from the point of connection to the cable or antenna; but interference can still enter the system, especially at connectors. When the interference comes from the same channel that’s carded on the cable, there is a problem because of the difference in broadcast speed between the two signals. Radio signals travel through the air at a speed very close to the speed of light. In a coaxial (同轴的) cable that brings CATV signals to your house, radio signals travel at about two-thirds the speed of light. When the broadcast and cable signals get to the television tuner a fraction of a second apart, you see a double image called "ghosting". In 1972, a cable system in Wilkes-Barre, PA, began offering the first "pay-per-view" channel. The customers would pay to watch individual movies or sporting events. They called the new service Home Box Office, or HBO. It continued as a regional service until 1975, when HBO began transmitting a signal to a in geosynchronous (与地球的相对位置不变的) orbit and then down to cable systems. These early satellites could receive and retransmit up to 24 channels. The cable systems receiving the signals used dish antennas 10 meters in diameter, with a separate dish for each channel! As the number of program options grew, the bandwidth of cable systems also increased. Early systems operated at 200 MHz, allowing 33 channels. As technology progressed, the bandwidth increased to 300,400,500 and now 550 MHz, with the number of channels increasing to 91. Two additional advances in technology -- fiber optics and analog-to-digital conversion -- improved features and broadcast quality while continuing to increase the number of channels available. In 1976, a new sort of cable system debuted. This system used fiber-optic cable for the trunk cables that carry signals from the CATV head-end to neighborhoods. The head-end is where the cable system receives programming from various sources, assigns the programming to channels and retransmits it onto cables. By the late 1970s, fiber optics had progressed considerably and so were a cost. Effective means of carrying CATV signals over long distances. The great advantage of fiber-optic cable is that it doesn’t suffer the same signal losses as coaxial cable, which eliminated the need for so many amplifiers. Another benefit that came from the move to fiber-optic cable was greater customization. Since a single fiber-optic cable might serve 500 households, it became possible to target individual neighborhoods for messages and services. In 1989, General Instruments demonstrated that it was possible to convert an analog cable signal to digital and transmit it in a standard 6-MHz television channel. Using MPEG compression, CATV systems installed today can transmit up to 10 channels of video in the 6-MHz bandwidth of a single analog channel. When combined with a 550-MHz overall bandwidth, this allows the possibility of nearly 1,000 channels of video on a system. In addition, digital technology allows for error correction to ensure the quality of the received signal, also changed the quality of one of cable television’s most visible features: the scrambled channel. The first system to "scramble" a channel on a cable system was demonstrated in 1971. In the first scrambling system, one of the signals used to synchronize the television picture was removed when the signal was transmitted, then reinserted by a small device at the customer’s home. Later scrambling systems inserted a signal slightly offset from the channel’s frequency to interfere with the picture, then filtered the interfering signal out of the mix at the customer’s television. In both cases, the scrambled channel could generally be seen as a jagged, disarranged set of video images. In a digital system, the signal isn’t scrambled, but encrypted (加密的). The signal must be decoded with the proper key. Without the key, the digital-to-analog converter can’t turn the stream of bits into anything usable by the television’s tuner. When a "non-signal" is received, the cable system substitutes an advertisement or the familiar blue screen. What’s the purpose of the manufacturers’ adding a switch to most new television sets
Many years ago a small elegant sailing boat was making its way slowly under an intense blue Mediterranean sky between the Greek islands of Ikaria and Naxos. The bow, that is, the forward part of the boat, was carved like a fish, or perhaps it was like a dolphin. The sail hung and fluttered in a faint wind and the sailors bent their brown backs over the oars. But all was not as peaceful as it seemed, for these sailors were planning to sell their passenger into slavery. He was obviously wellborn and rich, but what the villainous crew did not realize was that he was Dionysos, the Greeek God of Wine and Frenzy. When Dionysos realized their treachery he began to confound the sailors with magic: he turned their oars into snakes and filled the ship with vines and the sounds of flutes. The terrfied sailors dived into the sea to escape this madness and were transformed into dolphins by Nep-ture, the God of the Sea. Thus, according to Greek legend, dolphins were originally men, and this explains the friendship felt between man and these animals. This legend can be seen depictied on the Diony-sos cup which is still intact although it was made 540 years before the birth of Christ. Indeed, dolphins freqently appear in Greek legends and art, being found on walls and mosaic floors, on coins and statues. Poseidon, for example, was usually shown with dolphins, which often drew his seachariot, and it was he, according to legend, who put the dolphin constellation, in the sky where it can be seen in July. He did this out of gratitude to the dolphins for finding him his bride, Amphitrite, who was hiding from him in a sea cave. Later he had further reasons for gratitude to the dolphins since they rescued his son, Taras, from drowning. To the Greeks, and to the people of the Mediterranean lands where Greek culture spread, the dolphin became a symbol of swiftness, diligence and love. It became a god of protection for voyagers on sea and land, and also for those voyaging into the after life, so that the dead were buried with dolphin tokens in their hands. In addition to the legends about dolphin there are a number of stories in Greek writings which are prebablly at least partially true. These stories, told by many people including Aristotle, are the ones that came into such bad repute in the last century. But their stories of dolphins befriending children whom they allowed to ride on their backs, and of life-saying rescues, and human bodies brought to shore by dolphins have been paralleled so accurately, during this century, that we can no longer write off the Greek stories as merely sentimental fables. Let us look at the stories of rescue first. Taras, the son of the seagod, has already been mentioned, and Telemachos, son of the most famous adventurer of all time, Odysseus, is said to have been rescued in the same way, and for that reason Odysseus had a dolphin emblazoned on his shield and ring. Arion, a famous poet, musician and singer of his day, who was born on the island of Lesbos in 600 B. C., no doubt knew of these rescues and the legend of Dionysos and the dolphins. Perhaps he merely put them together to make a poem to sing as he accompanied himself on the harp. Certainly his dolphin story bears a striking resemblance to the Dionysos legend, but, who knows, it may be true. Here is the story. Arion, after a successful tour of Italy and Sicily, and loaded with money and prizes, took a ship for Corinth. He chose a corinthian ship rather than an Italian one for he trusted the Corinthians more. But evidently sailors were an untrustworthy lot, for very soon they were plotting to kill him and keep his treasures. Arion begged for his life, but they told him that he must either jump overboard or die by his own sword if he wished for a proper burial ashore. As a last favour, Arian pleaded to be allowed to sing, and, dressing himself in all his splendid clothes and weighed down in his riches, he stood in the stern and sang them the "Orthian", a high- pitched song addressed to the gods, and as he finished he leapt fully clothed in the sea. A dolphin, perhaps attracted by the shrill sounds, took Arian on its back and swam with him to Tainaron at the southern most tip of the Greek mainland. From there Arion made his way overland to Corinth to confront and bring to justice the greedy sailors. As a thank-coffering he placed a small bronze statue of a man on a dolphin in the temple at Tainaron where it was seen 700 years later by Pausanias, the Greek historian. According to Greek legend, what dolphins originally were
Cable Television In the 1940s, there were four networks in the United States. Because of the frequencies allotted to television, the signals could only be received in a "line of sight" from the transmitting antenna. People living in remote areas couldn’t see the programs that were already becoming an important part of U. S. culture. In 1948, people living in remote valleys in Pennsylvania solved their reception problems by putting antennas on hills and running cables to their houses. These days, the same technology once used by remote villages and select cities allows viewers all over the country to access a wide variety of programs and channels that meet their individual needs and desires. By the early 1990s, cable television had reached nearly half the homes in the United States. Today, U. S. cable systems deliver hundreds of channels to some 60 million homes, while also providing a growing number of people with high-speed Internet access. Some cable systems even let you make telephone calls and receive new programming technologies! The earliest cable systems were, in effect, strategically placed antennas with very long cables connecting them to subscribers’ television sets. Because the signal from the antenna became Weaker as it traveled through the length of cable, cable providers had to insert amplifiers at regular intervals to boost the strength of the signal and make it acceptable for viewing. "In a cable system, the signal might have gone through 30 or 40 amplifiers before reaching your house, one every 1,000 feet or so," Wall says, "With each amplifier, you would get noise and distortion. Plus, if one of the amplifiers failed, you lost the picture. Cable got a reputation for not having the best quality picture and for not being reliable." In the late 1970s, cable television would find a solution to the amplifier problem. By then, they had also developed technology that allowed them to add more programming to cable service. In the early 1950s, cable systems began experimenting with ways to use microwave transmitting and receiving towers to capture the signals from distant stations. In some cases, this made television available to people who lived outside the range of standard broadcasts. In other cases, especially in the northeastern United States, it meant that cable customers might have access to several broadcast stations of the same network. For the first time, cable was used to enrich television viewing, not just make ordinary viewing possible. The addition of community antenna television stations and the spread of cable systems ultimately led manufacturers to add a switch to most new television sets. People could set their televisions to tune to channels, or they could set them for the plan used by most cable systems. In both tuning systems, each television station was given a 6-megahertz (MHz) slice of the radio spectrum. The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) had originally devoted parts of the very high frequency (VHF) spectrum to 12 television channels. The channels weren’t put into a single block of frequencies, but were instead broken into two groups to avoid interfering with existing services. Later, when the growing popularity of television necessitated additional channels, the FCC allocated frequencies in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) portion of the spectrum. They established channels 14 to 69 using a block of frequencies between 470 MHz and 812 MHz. Because they used cable instead of antennas, cable television systems didn’t have to worry about existing services. Engineers could use the mid-band, those frequencies passed over by broadcast TV due to other signals, for channels 14-22. Channels 1 through 6 are at lower frequencies and the rest are higher. The "CATV \ Antenna" switch tells the television’s tuner whether to tune around the mid-band or to tune straight through it. While we’re on the subject of tuning, it’s worth considering why CATV systems don’t use the same frequencies for stations broadcasting on channels 1 to 6 that those stations use to broadcast over the airwaves. Cable equipment is designed to shield the signals carded on the cable from outside interference, and televisions are designed to accept signals only from the point of connection to the cable or antenna; but interference can still enter the system, especially at connectors. When the interference comes from the same channel that’s carded on the cable, there is a problem because of the difference in broadcast speed between the two signals. Radio signals travel through the air at a speed very close to the speed of light. In a coaxial (同轴的) cable that brings CATV signals to your house, radio signals travel at about two-thirds the speed of light. When the broadcast and cable signals get to the television tuner a fraction of a second apart, you see a double image called "ghosting". In 1972, a cable system in Wilkes-Barre, PA, began offering the first "pay-per-view" channel. The customers would pay to watch individual movies or sporting events. They called the new service Home Box Office, or HBO. It continued as a regional service until 1975, when HBO began transmitting a signal to a in geosynchronous (与地球的相对位置不变的) orbit and then down to cable systems. These early satellites could receive and retransmit up to 24 channels. The cable systems receiving the signals used dish antennas 10 meters in diameter, with a separate dish for each channel! As the number of program options grew, the bandwidth of cable systems also increased. Early systems operated at 200 MHz, allowing 33 channels. As technology progressed, the bandwidth increased to 300,400,500 and now 550 MHz, with the number of channels increasing to 91. Two additional advances in technology -- fiber optics and analog-to-digital conversion -- improved features and broadcast quality while continuing to increase the number of channels available. In 1976, a new sort of cable system debuted. This system used fiber-optic cable for the trunk cables that carry signals from the CATV head-end to neighborhoods. The head-end is where the cable system receives programming from various sources, assigns the programming to channels and retransmits it onto cables. By the late 1970s, fiber optics had progressed considerably and so were a cost. Effective means of carrying CATV signals over long distances. The great advantage of fiber-optic cable is that it doesn’t suffer the same signal losses as coaxial cable, which eliminated the need for so many amplifiers. Another benefit that came from the move to fiber-optic cable was greater customization. Since a single fiber-optic cable might serve 500 households, it became possible to target individual neighborhoods for messages and services. In 1989, General Instruments demonstrated that it was possible to convert an analog cable signal to digital and transmit it in a standard 6-MHz television channel. Using MPEG compression, CATV systems installed today can transmit up to 10 channels of video in the 6-MHz bandwidth of a single analog channel. When combined with a 550-MHz overall bandwidth, this allows the possibility of nearly 1,000 channels of video on a system. In addition, digital technology allows for error correction to ensure the quality of the received signal, also changed the quality of one of cable television’s most visible features: the scrambled channel. The first system to "scramble" a channel on a cable system was demonstrated in 1971. In the first scrambling system, one of the signals used to synchronize the television picture was removed when the signal was transmitted, then reinserted by a small device at the customer’s home. Later scrambling systems inserted a signal slightly offset from the channel’s frequency to interfere with the picture, then filtered the interfering signal out of the mix at the customer’s television. In both cases, the scrambled channel could generally be seen as a jagged, disarranged set of video images. In a digital system, the signal isn’t scrambled, but encrypted (加密的). The signal must be decoded with the proper key. Without the key, the digital-to-analog converter can’t turn the stream of bits into anything usable by the television’s tuner. When a "non-signal" is received, the cable system substitutes an advertisement or the familiar blue screen. In tuning system, the Federal Communications Commission had distributed parts of ______ spectrum to 12 television channels which were broken into two groups to avoid interference with existing services at the beginning.
Cable Television In the 1940s, there were four networks in the United States. Because of the frequencies allotted to television, the signals could only be received in a "line of sight" from the transmitting antenna. People living in remote areas couldn’t see the programs that were already becoming an important part of U. S. culture. In 1948, people living in remote valleys in Pennsylvania solved their reception problems by putting antennas on hills and running cables to their houses. These days, the same technology once used by remote villages and select cities allows viewers all over the country to access a wide variety of programs and channels that meet their individual needs and desires. By the early 1990s, cable television had reached nearly half the homes in the United States. Today, U. S. cable systems deliver hundreds of channels to some 60 million homes, while also providing a growing number of people with high-speed Internet access. Some cable systems even let you make telephone calls and receive new programming technologies! The earliest cable systems were, in effect, strategically placed antennas with very long cables connecting them to subscribers’ television sets. Because the signal from the antenna became Weaker as it traveled through the length of cable, cable providers had to insert amplifiers at regular intervals to boost the strength of the signal and make it acceptable for viewing. "In a cable system, the signal might have gone through 30 or 40 amplifiers before reaching your house, one every 1,000 feet or so," Wall says, "With each amplifier, you would get noise and distortion. Plus, if one of the amplifiers failed, you lost the picture. Cable got a reputation for not having the best quality picture and for not being reliable." In the late 1970s, cable television would find a solution to the amplifier problem. By then, they had also developed technology that allowed them to add more programming to cable service. In the early 1950s, cable systems began experimenting with ways to use microwave transmitting and receiving towers to capture the signals from distant stations. In some cases, this made television available to people who lived outside the range of standard broadcasts. In other cases, especially in the northeastern United States, it meant that cable customers might have access to several broadcast stations of the same network. For the first time, cable was used to enrich television viewing, not just make ordinary viewing possible. The addition of community antenna television stations and the spread of cable systems ultimately led manufacturers to add a switch to most new television sets. People could set their televisions to tune to channels, or they could set them for the plan used by most cable systems. In both tuning systems, each television station was given a 6-megahertz (MHz) slice of the radio spectrum. The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) had originally devoted parts of the very high frequency (VHF) spectrum to 12 television channels. The channels weren’t put into a single block of frequencies, but were instead broken into two groups to avoid interfering with existing services. Later, when the growing popularity of television necessitated additional channels, the FCC allocated frequencies in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) portion of the spectrum. They established channels 14 to 69 using a block of frequencies between 470 MHz and 812 MHz. Because they used cable instead of antennas, cable television systems didn’t have to worry about existing services. Engineers could use the mid-band, those frequencies passed over by broadcast TV due to other signals, for channels 14-22. Channels 1 through 6 are at lower frequencies and the rest are higher. The "CATV \ Antenna" switch tells the television’s tuner whether to tune around the mid-band or to tune straight through it. While we’re on the subject of tuning, it’s worth considering why CATV systems don’t use the same frequencies for stations broadcasting on channels 1 to 6 that those stations use to broadcast over the airwaves. Cable equipment is designed to shield the signals carded on the cable from outside interference, and televisions are designed to accept signals only from the point of connection to the cable or antenna; but interference can still enter the system, especially at connectors. When the interference comes from the same channel that’s carded on the cable, there is a problem because of the difference in broadcast speed between the two signals. Radio signals travel through the air at a speed very close to the speed of light. In a coaxial (同轴的) cable that brings CATV signals to your house, radio signals travel at about two-thirds the speed of light. When the broadcast and cable signals get to the television tuner a fraction of a second apart, you see a double image called "ghosting". In 1972, a cable system in Wilkes-Barre, PA, began offering the first "pay-per-view" channel. The customers would pay to watch individual movies or sporting events. They called the new service Home Box Office, or HBO. It continued as a regional service until 1975, when HBO began transmitting a signal to a in geosynchronous (与地球的相对位置不变的) orbit and then down to cable systems. These early satellites could receive and retransmit up to 24 channels. The cable systems receiving the signals used dish antennas 10 meters in diameter, with a separate dish for each channel! As the number of program options grew, the bandwidth of cable systems also increased. Early systems operated at 200 MHz, allowing 33 channels. As technology progressed, the bandwidth increased to 300,400,500 and now 550 MHz, with the number of channels increasing to 91. Two additional advances in technology -- fiber optics and analog-to-digital conversion -- improved features and broadcast quality while continuing to increase the number of channels available. In 1976, a new sort of cable system debuted. This system used fiber-optic cable for the trunk cables that carry signals from the CATV head-end to neighborhoods. The head-end is where the cable system receives programming from various sources, assigns the programming to channels and retransmits it onto cables. By the late 1970s, fiber optics had progressed considerably and so were a cost. Effective means of carrying CATV signals over long distances. The great advantage of fiber-optic cable is that it doesn’t suffer the same signal losses as coaxial cable, which eliminated the need for so many amplifiers. Another benefit that came from the move to fiber-optic cable was greater customization. Since a single fiber-optic cable might serve 500 households, it became possible to target individual neighborhoods for messages and services. In 1989, General Instruments demonstrated that it was possible to convert an analog cable signal to digital and transmit it in a standard 6-MHz television channel. Using MPEG compression, CATV systems installed today can transmit up to 10 channels of video in the 6-MHz bandwidth of a single analog channel. When combined with a 550-MHz overall bandwidth, this allows the possibility of nearly 1,000 channels of video on a system. In addition, digital technology allows for error correction to ensure the quality of the received signal, also changed the quality of one of cable television’s most visible features: the scrambled channel. The first system to "scramble" a channel on a cable system was demonstrated in 1971. In the first scrambling system, one of the signals used to synchronize the television picture was removed when the signal was transmitted, then reinserted by a small device at the customer’s home. Later scrambling systems inserted a signal slightly offset from the channel’s frequency to interfere with the picture, then filtered the interfering signal out of the mix at the customer’s television. In both cases, the scrambled channel could generally be seen as a jagged, disarranged set of video images. In a digital system, the signal isn’t scrambled, but encrypted (加密的). The signal must be decoded with the proper key. Without the key, the digital-to-analog converter can’t turn the stream of bits into anything usable by the television’s tuner. When a "non-signal" is received, the cable system substitutes an advertisement or the familiar blue screen. How did cable providers solve the problem of the earliest cable systems
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