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Alison Preston of the University of Texas at Austin"s Center for Learning and Memory explains:A short-term memory"s conversion to a long-term memory requires changes within the brain that protect the memory from interference from competing stimuli or disruption from injury or disease. This time-dependent process of stabilization, whereby our experiences achieve a permanent record in ourmemory, is referred to as "consolidation". Memory consolidation can occur at many organizational levels in the brain. The cellular and molecular portions of memory consolidation typically take place within the first minutes or hours of learning and result in changes to neurons (nerve cells) or sets of neurons. Systems-level consolidation, involving the reorganization of brain networks that handle the processing of individual memories can then happen on a much slower time frame of days or even years. The consolidation process that affects declarative memories-recollections of general facts and specific events—relies on the function of some specific structures in the brain. At the cellular level, memory is expressed as changes to the structure and function of neurons. For example, new synapses—the connections between neurons through which they exchange information—can form to allow for communication between new networks of neurons. Alternatively, existing synapses can be strengthened to allow for increased sensitivity in the communication between two neurons.Consolidating such synaptic changes requires the synthesis of new RNA and proteins in the structures, which transform temporary alterations in synaptic transmission into persistent modifications of synaptic architecture. With time, the brain systems also change. Initially, the specific structure works in concert with sensory-processing regions distributed in the neo-cortex (the outermost layer of the brain) to form the new memories. Within the neo-cortex, representations of the elements that constitute an event in our life are distributed across multiple brain regions according to their content. When a memory is first formed, the specific structure rapidly combines this distributed information into a single memory, thus acting as an index of representations in the sensory-processing regions. As time passes, cellular and molecular changes allow for the strengthening of direct connections among the neocortical regions, enabling access to the memory independent of the structure. Thus, while damage to the structure from injury or particular disorder hampers the ability to form new declarative memories, such a disruption may not impair memories for facts and events that have already been consolidated. Thus, an amnesiac with hippocampal damage would not be able to learn the names of current presidential candidates but would be able to recall the identity of our 16th president. The word "synapses" (Para. 3) most probably means _____.
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A full-time job doesn"t have to destroy all hope of family dinners or afternoon playtime. Women can increase their chances of getting on the new mommy track through successful negotiation both at work and at home. After lawyer Lindsay Androski Kelly, 30, decided she would work only at a firm that allowed flexible hours, she specifically asked about family-friendlypolicies during job interviews. While Kelly"s approach worked for her, Michelle Goodman, warns against asking for flexibility too early, before proving oneself on the job. "You do need to pay your dues a little bit," she says. She recommends researching companies ahead of time to find out whether they"re known for family-friendly arrangements. Pat Katepoo, founder of WorkOptions.com, which offers guidance on achieving customized work arrangements, suggests first pitching a trial period. "Even if supervisors are nervous about a nontraditional arrangement, they will feel some sense of control if there"s a backdoor option for stopping it." Putting the proposal in writing with clear explanations of how the job will still get done also helps, Katepoo says. In her experience, if employees have worked for a manager for at least one to two years, are reliable performers, and have a trusting relationship with their manager, they have an 80 percent chance of at least getting a trial period. Regardless of the schedule, setting boundaries—such as having a policy against meetings after 5 p.m. —is key, says Mary Ann Mason, co-author of Mothers on the Fast Track: How a New Generation Can Balance Family and Careers. She also urges women not to wait too long before having children. For some fields, especially those that require extensive training such as academia or medicine, it"s easier to have small children earlier, rather than during what Mason calls the "make or break" years between ages 30 and 40. Women working in low-skilled jobs, on the other hand, usually find flexibility only by lucking into employers who accept it, says Leslie Morgan Steiner, editor of Mommy Wars. "Men and women at the lowest income levels don"t have any leverage," she says. Women across the economic spectrum benefit from support at home. Leslie Bennetts, author of The Feminine Mistake: Are We Giving Up Too Much, encourages women to find a way to continue working throughout motherhood: "Women must insist that their husbands share everything." Many women appear to be doing just that:A University of Maryland study found that the time men spent on housework almost doubled between the 1960s and 1990s, by which time they were doing one third of it. According to Pat Katepoo, women are more likely to get a trial period when they _____.
Partly due to a historical development marked by worldwide colonialism, urbanization, and globalization, in the course of this century humankind is likely to experience its most extreme cultural loss. As K David Harrison notes in When Languages Die, "The last speakers of probably half of the world"s languages are alive today." Their children or grandchildren are pressured to speak only thedominant language of their community or country. Under one estimate, more than 50% of the 6,900 or so languages identified nowadays are expected to become extinct in a matter of a few ecades. The precise criteria for what counts as a distinct language are controversial—especially those regarding closely related linguistic systems, which are often inaccurately referred to as dialects of the same language. The problem is complicated by the insufficiency of studies about the grammar of many of the world"s endangered languages. In addition, from a cognitive standpoint any two groups of individuals whose languages are mutually intelligible may in fact have distinct mental grammars. As a cognitive system, a language shows dynamic properties that cannot exist independently of its speakers. This is the sense in which the Anatolian languages and Dalmatian are extinct. Therefore, language preservation depends on the maintenance of the native-speaking human groups. Unfortunately, the most accelerated loss of distinct languages takes place where economic development is rapid, worsening the breakdown of minority communities that speak different languages. In this perspective, a language often begins to die long before the passing of the last speaker: New generations may start using it only for limited purposes, increasingly shifting to the community"s dominant language. In this process, knowledge of the dying language erodes both at the individual level and at the community level. Linguistic diversity itself may be the worst loss at stake, because it may be the most promising and precise source of evidence for the range of variation allowed in the organization of the human cognitive system. For instance, Harrison discusses many strategies for manipulating quantities across languages, often endangered ones. The rapid loss of linguistic diversity substantially hinders comparative investigation about the multiple ways in which a single cognitive domain can be organized. Linguists are well aware that their efforts alone cannot prevent this loss. Community involvement, especially with government support, has proven essential in slowing or even reversing language loss in different cases (e.g., Basque and Irish). Crucially, endangered languages must be acquired by new generations of speakers. Here the biological metaphor adopted by Harrison applies appropriately—documentation of dead languages is akin to a fossil record, providing only partial clues about complex cognitive systems. The start of language dying is indicated by_____.
"It keeps you grounded, puts you in a situation that keeps you out of trouble, and puts you with a group that has the same mind-set," says Molly Skinner, a sophomore at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, appraising the nonathletic benefits she experienced while playing soccer in high school. According to one new study, suiting up for the high school team does seem to givegirls a boost when it comes to getting a college diploma. The recent study, conducted by professors from Brigham Young University (BYU) and West Chester University of Pennsylvania (WCUP), found that women who played sports in high school were 73 percent more likely to earn a bachelor"s degree within six years of graduating from high school than those who did not. (The study did not look at male athletes.) Their analysis of data from 5,103 women collected as part of a U.S. Department of Education study found that even among girls who face statistical challenges finishing college based on socioeconomic background, the athletes still had more than 40 percent higher college completion rates than nonathletes, regardless of whether they played at the college level. "In times when we worry about improving academic performance or outcomes, we wonder should we be devoting time and money to extracurricular activities" asks BYU Prof. Mikaela Dufur, one of the study"s authors. "These are important arenas for—in our case—girls to make connections with others and adults who help encourage them to succeed." At the collegiate level, though, the measure of women"s sports remains as murky (unclear) as ever, thanks to the politics of Title DC Enacted in 1972, Title DC guarantees women equal opportunity in collegiate sports, but its critics contend that many schools reach that balance by cutting men"s teams rather than adding women"s.A July report on Title DC from the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has done little to settle the debate. That study found increases in student participation in college athletics on both sides of the gender line, though the growth rate was higher for women"s teams and female athletes. Title DC critics say that the GAO report relies too heavily on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) data, which can obscure the number of men"s teams cut from particular schools as more colleges join the NCAA verall. While the political debate continues, female athletes themselves seem to be focusing on the finish line. "I think that sports teaches you to persevere," says Virginia Tech-bound Rachel Plumb, who raced on her high school"s cross country team. "It teaches you to keep an eye on a goal." We can conclude from the text that _____.
"It keeps you grounded, puts you in a situation that keeps you out of trouble, and puts you with a group that has the same mind-set," says Molly Skinner, a sophomore at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, appraising the nonathletic benefits she experienced while playing soccer in high school. According to one new study, suiting up for the high school team does seem to givegirls a boost when it comes to getting a college diploma. The recent study, conducted by professors from Brigham Young University (BYU) and West Chester University of Pennsylvania (WCUP), found that women who played sports in high school were 73 percent more likely to earn a bachelor"s degree within six years of graduating from high school than those who did not. (The study did not look at male athletes.) Their analysis of data from 5,103 women collected as part of a U.S. Department of Education study found that even among girls who face statistical challenges finishing college based on socioeconomic background, the athletes still had more than 40 percent higher college completion rates than nonathletes, regardless of whether they played at the college level. "In times when we worry about improving academic performance or outcomes, we wonder should we be devoting time and money to extracurricular activities" asks BYU Prof. Mikaela Dufur, one of the study"s authors. "These are important arenas for—in our case—girls to make connections with others and adults who help encourage them to succeed." At the collegiate level, though, the measure of women"s sports remains as murky (unclear) as ever, thanks to the politics of Title DC Enacted in 1972, Title DC guarantees women equal opportunity in collegiate sports, but its critics contend that many schools reach that balance by cutting men"s teams rather than adding women"s.A July report on Title DC from the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has done little to settle the debate. That study found increases in student participation in college athletics on both sides of the gender line, though the growth rate was higher for women"s teams and female athletes. Title DC critics say that the GAO report relies too heavily on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) data, which can obscure the number of men"s teams cut from particular schools as more colleges join the NCAA verall. While the political debate continues, female athletes themselves seem to be focusing on the finish line. "I think that sports teaches you to persevere," says Virginia Tech-bound Rachel Plumb, who raced on her high school"s cross country team. "It teaches you to keep an eye on a goal." It can be inferred from the text that _____.
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