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Refinement and reduction, and their breakdown elements, are obvious candidates when assessing costs of an animal study protocol. Implementation of ________________ analysis will identify the weak points of welfare of procedures and housing, and hence inevitably further laboratory animal welfare.

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Replacementalternativesrefer tomethodswhichavoidorreplacetheuseofanimalsinanareawhereanimalswouldotherwisehavebeenused.Thisincludesbothabsolutereplacements(i.e.replacinganimalswith___________systems,suchascomputerprograms)andrelativereplacements(i.e.replacingmoresentientanimals,suchasvertebrates,withanimalsthatcurrentexpertpeeradviceandinterpretationofscientificevidenceindicatehaveasignificantlylowerpotentialforpainperception,suchassomeinvertebrates).

Refinement alternatives refer to the modification of husbandry or experimental procedures to minimize pain and distress, and to __________ the welfare of an animal used in science from the time it is born until its death.

Agents with a low potential to induce clinical signs are able to increase __________ between individuals, causing an increase in the numbers of animals required for scientific experiments.

In fact, most infections do not lead to overt clinical symptoms (disease) and are usually latent. Thus, the absence of clinical manifestations of infection has no or only limited diagnostic value, and ____________ infections are only detected if specific monitoring methods are applied.