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By the early twentieth century, physicians had mixed views about medical research. Physicians still accepted the Hippocratic ethos, but they were also interested in advancing medical science and testing new therapies. Although some physicians, such as Walter Reed, sought consent from their patients, medical practice was highly paternalistic. Physicians often treated their patients without explaining what they were doing or why. They were more concerned with helping their patients than obtaining consent and they often viewed medical experimentation as a necessary part of treatment. Indeed, physicians practicing medicine during this era did not have a clear sense of the difference between research and treatment and many mixed the two together.
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By the 1930s, 28 US states had passed laws mandating involuntary sterilization of "unfit" individuals, including those who were mentally ill or disabled, criminally insane, or psychopathic. ～1,000,000 people were sterilized under US eugenics laws.
Prominent proponents of eugenics included British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965), U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), science fiction writer H.G. Wells (1866–1946), and even African American scholar and civil rights activist W.E.B. Dubois (1868–1963), who opposed racism but believed in encouraging the most talented members of all races to interbreed.
Inspired by the idea that Aryans constitute a "master race," Germany began in the 1930s a program of racial/ethnic purification to rid the country of "desirable" members of the population, including Jews, mentally or physically disabled people, Gypsies, and mixed-race children. The program began after Hitler came to power in 1933, with the enactment of mandatory sterilization laws and it soon included "euthanasia" of mentally or physically disabled people.
Less well-known are the Japanese chemical and biological warfare experiments on Chinese prisoners of war, which took place on mainland China from 1932 to 1945. These experiments did not gain much notoriety until the 1990s because the US government was interested in the data from these experiments.
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